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When we say that someone “speaks” a language fluently, we usually mean that they have a high level in all four skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing. But, as any teacher knows, learners often have strengths or weaknesses in particular skills, and in some cases can achieve high levels in, for example, reading and writing, while not being able to speak or listen at a comparable level.

For some purposes – highly specialised jobs, for example – these uneven skills may not matter very much. However, English is such an important skill in the global world, and needed in so many different contexts, that someone without a good ability in all four skills will greatly reduce the opportunities open to them in education and professional life.

If we want to assess someone’s speaking ability, we must get them to speak. The same applies to all the other skills. We can’t infer ability in one skill (e.g. speaking) from performance in another (e.g. listening), or from using tests of language knowledge, e.g. grammar, vocabulary, as proxies for communicative language ability. Therefore if we want to accurately assess communicative language ability, we need to include tasks which elicit a wide range of skills related to communicative language.

The Common European Framework of Reference (2001) extends the definition of communicative language ability into five skills, and divides speaking into two skills: spoken production and spoken interaction. This is based on the evidence that these two skills are different, since one involves only monologue-type speech and the other involves being both a speaker and a listener at the same time. A test of communicative language, therefore, needs to include both spoken production and spoken interaction.

Adaptado de: GALACZI, Evelina. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/blog/benefits-oftesting-the-four-skills/. Acesso em: 30 mar. 2021.

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The relationship between learning and teaching is so much complex. Some studies carried out on language teaching process confirm that learning a language is one of the most serious concerns for human beings. Recently, scholars have used Bakhtinian concepts in language studies because some of Bakhtin's concepts can act as tools to help the teaching process, for instance Bakhtin's concept of dialogue shows how in the process of teaching, the teacher can have communication with his or her students to transform meaning. Furthermore, Bakhtin's concept of dialogue is used to analyze classroom discourses, whereas, teachers control all the learning and teaching activities in the classroom. A classroom with this kind of positive environment will be based on the dialogic model, in contrast to the traditional, predominantly monologic and teacher-centered classrooms where students mostly work individually with authoritative texts.

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Linguist Michael Lewis literally wrote the book on the topic. His 1993 work, titled “The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward,” put together the conceptual foundations for effectively teaching a second language.

The idea is that grammar comes only second to Lexis, or words. But by “words,” we’re not talking about vocabulary or individual words here. We’re more interested in word “chunks,” or phrases—words that usually go together and are commonly found next to each other in the language.

There are plenty of them in English: words that come as a set and signal the presence of the other, like Starsky and Hutch, Donkey and Shrek, Batman and Robin. Consider the following phrases:

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Inquiries into the deaths of British teenagers after eating buttermilk, sesame and peanut have highlighted the sometimes tragic consequences. Last year, a six-year-old girl in Western Australia died as the result of a dairy allergy.

The rise in allergies in recent decades has been particularly noticeable in the West. Food allergy now affects about 7% of children in the UK and 9% of those in Australia, for example. Across Europe, 2% of adults have food allergies.

Life-threatening reactions can be prompted even by traces of the trigger foods, meaning patients and families live with fear and anxiety. The dietary restrictions which follow can become a burden to social and family lives.

While we can't say for sure why allergy rates are increasing, researchers around the world are working hard to find ways to combat this phenomenon.

The increase in allergies is not simply the effect of society becoming more aware of them and better at diagnosing them.

It is thought that allergies and increased sensitivity to foods are probably environmental, and related to Western lifestyles.

We know there are lower rates of allergies in developing countries. They are also more likely to occur in urban rather than rural areas.

Factors may include pollution, dietary changes and less exposure to microbes, which change how our immune systems respond.

Migrants appear to show a higher prevalence of asthma and food allergy in their adopted country compared to their country of origin, further illustrating the importance of environmental factors.

SANTOS, Alexandra. 2019. Disponível em: https://www.bbc.com/news/health-46302780. Acesso em 14 jun. 2021.

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Inquiries into the deaths of British teenagers after eating buttermilk, sesame and peanut have highlighted the sometimes tragic consequences. Last year, a six-year-old girl in Western Australia died as the result of a dairy allergy.

The rise in allergies in recent decades has been particularly noticeable in the West. Food allergy now affects about 7% of children in the UK and 9% of those in Australia, for example. Across Europe, 2% of adults have food allergies.

Life-threatening reactions can be prompted even by traces of the trigger foods, meaning patients and families live with fear and anxiety. The dietary restrictions which follow can become a burden to social and family lives.

While we can't say for sure why allergy rates are increasing, researchers around the world are working hard to find ways to combat this phenomenon.

The increase in allergies is not simply the effect of society becoming more aware of them and better at diagnosing them.

It is thought that allergies and increased sensitivity to foods are probably environmental, and related to Western lifestyles.

We know there are lower rates of allergies in developing countries. They are also more likely to occur in urban rather than rural areas.

Factors may include pollution, dietary changes and less exposure to microbes, which change how our immune systems respond.

Migrants appear to show a higher prevalence of asthma and food allergy in their adopted country compared to their country of origin, further illustrating the importance of environmental factors.

SANTOS, Alexandra. 2019. Disponível em: https://www.bbc.com/news/health-46302780. Acesso em 14 jun. 2021.